An overview of the diseases constraining the production and productivity in cowpea: With focus in bacterial blight disease caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola
Abstract
Vigna unguiculata L. Walp. L. (cowpea) is a significant legume crop mainly cultivated by small-scale growers in sub-Saharan Africa for human food (vegetables and grains) and animal fodder. The main aim of this review was to examine the production and productivity limitations of cowpea cultivars, with an emphasis on bacterial blight disease. To achieve our objective, we evaluated literature from multiple sources, focusing on relevant information for our review. In sub-Saharan Africa, Kenya is among the leading countries in cowpea production, with Nigeria leading in West Africa, which accounts for approximately 61% of global cowpea output. Cowpeas are affected by a broad range of diseases and pests, resulting to the destruction of entire crops. Continuous crop improvement is essential for the development of new cowpea varieties that do well under varied environmental conditions and are resistant to a wide range of diseases and pests. There is a serious need for interdisciplinary cooperation between breeders and other important actors, such as agricultural extension officers and farmers. There is a pressing demand for cowpea breeding initiatives that concentrate on breeding cultivars with early maturity, disease, pest, and drought tolerance due to sub-Saharan Africa's diminishing rainfall pattern, increases in pests and diseases, and changing environmental conditions. The current review evaluates the diseases constraining the yield and performance of cowpea, with an emphasis on the bacterial blight of cowpea.
References
Abd El-Aziz, M. H. (2024). Cowpea. In Viral Diseases of Field and Horticultural Crops (pp. 127-130). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90899-3.00036-7
Adams, F. K., Kumar, L., Kwoseh, C., & Akromah, R. (2020). Occurrence of cowpea viruses in the forest and savannah agro-ecological zones of Ghana. African Crop Science Journal, 28(3), 441-448. DOI:10.4314/acsj.v28i3.8
Adila, W., Terefe, H., & Bekele, A. (2021). Common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli) resistance reaction in common bean genotypes and their agronomic performances in Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology, 1-14.
Adipala, E., Takan, J. P., Mukalere, Z., & Ogenga-Latigo, M. W. (1995). Preliminary evaluation of cowpea lines for resistance to zonate leaf spots and bacterial blight. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal, 61(1), 55-61. https://doi.org/10.4314/eaafj.v61i1.46792
Agbicodo, E., Fatokun, C., Bandyopadhyay, R., Wydra, K., Diop, N., Muchero, W., et al. (2010). Identification of markers associated with bacterial blight resistance loci in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.]. Euphytica 175, 215–226. doi: 10.1007/s10681-010-0164-5
Ahmed, A. A., Hamza, S., & Suleiman, M. (2022). Effects of Two Unrelated Viruses on Growth and Yield of Some Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) Cultivars in Mokwa, Southern Guinea Savannah. Nigeria Agricultural Journal, 53(1), 183-190.
Akintunde, F. C., Chukwudi, U. S., & Anjorin, T. S. (2023). Mycobiota Incidence of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata l. Walp) Seeds in Nigeria. Int J Agriculture Technology, 3(2), 1-5.
Bakhshi, M., Zare, R., Kermanian, M., & Ebrahimi, L. (2021). Cryptic diversity, multilocus phylogeny, and pathogenicity of cercosporoid fungi associated with common bean and cowpea. Plant Pathology, 70(7), 1665-1676. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppa.13403
Bua, B., Adipala, E., & Opio, F. (1998). Screening cowpea germplasm for resistance to bacterial blight in Uganda. International Journal of Pest Management, 44(3), 185-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/096708798228293
Chen, N. W., Ruh, M., Darrasse, A., Foucher, J., Briand, M., Costa, J., ... & Jacques, M. A. (2021). Common bacterial blight of bean: a model of seed transmission and pathological convergence. Molecular Plant Pathology, 22(12), 1464-1480. https://doi.org/10.1111/mpp.13067
Claudius-Cole, A. O., Ekpo, E. J. A., & Schilder, A. M. C. (2014). Evaluation of detection methods for cowpea bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv vignicola in Nigeria.
Constantin, E., Cleenwerck, I., Maes, M., Baeyen, S., Van Malderghem, C., De Vos, P., et al. (2016). Genetic characterization of strains named as Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. dieffenbachiae leads to a taxonomic revision of the X. axonopodis species complex. Plant Pathology. 65, 792–806. doi: 10.1111/ppa.12461
da Silva Júnior, T. A. F., do Nascimento, D. M., da Silva, J. C., Soman, J. M., Gonçalves, R. M., & Maringoni, A. C. (2022). Common bacterial blight of beans: an integrated approach to disease management in Brazil. Tropical Plant Pathology, 47(4), 457-469.
da Silva, V. B., Bomfim, C. S. G., Sena, P. T. S., Santos, J. C. S., Mattos, W. D. S., Gava, C. A. T., ... & Fernandes-Júnior, P. I. (2021). Vigna spp. Root-nodules harbor potentially pathogenic fungi controlled by co-habiting bacteria. Current Microbiology, 78, 1835-1845.
Dareus, R., Porto, A. C. M., Bogale, M., Digennaro, P., Chase, C. A., and Rios, E. F. (2021). Resistance to meloidogyne enterolobii and meloidogyne incognita in cultivated and wild cowpea. HortScience 56, 460–468. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI15564-20
de Lima-Primo, H. E., Halfeld-Vieira, B. D. A., Nechet, K. D. L., de Souza, G. R., Mizubuti, E. S., & de Oliveira, J. R. (2019). Influence of bacterial blight on different phenological stages of cowpea. Scientia horticulturae, 255, 44-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.05.012
Deepika, Y. S., Mahadevakumar, S., Amruthesh, K. N., & Lakshmidevi, N. (2020). A new collar rot disease of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) caused by Aplosporella hesperidica in India. Letters in applied microbiology, 71(2), 154-163.
Degu, T., Alemu, T., Desalegn, A., Amsalu, B., & Assefa, A. (2023). Association of cropping practices, cropping areas, and foliar diseases of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Ethiopia. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 14, 100765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100765
Dell’Olmo, E., Tiberini, A., & Sigillo, L. (2023). Leguminous seed-borne pathogens: Seed health and sustainable crop management. Plants, 12(10), 2040. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12102040
Divya, T. S., Nisha, M. S., Anitha, N., & Paul, A. (2021). Integrated management of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood in cowpea. Indian Journal of Nematology, 51(1), 74-80.
Durojaye, H. A., Moukoumbi, Y. D., Dania, V. O., Boukar, O., Bandyopadhyay, R., and Ortega-Beltran, A. (2019). Evaluation of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) landraces to bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola. Crop Prot. 116, 77–81. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2018.10.013
Edet, I. A., Afolabi, C. G., Popoola, A. R., Arogundade, O., & Akinbode, O. A. (2022). Identification and molecular characterisation of cercospora leaf spot disease pathogen on cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 55(1), 109-120. https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2021.2000782
El-Nagdi, W. M. A., A Youssef, M. M., Abd-El-Khair, H., Abd Elgawad, M. M. M., & Dawood, M. G. (2021). Effectiveness of Bacillus subtilis, B. pumilus, Pseudomonas fluorescens on Meloidogyne incognita infecting cowpea. Pakistan Journal of Nematology, 39(1).
Etaware, P. M., & Ogungbemile, O. A. (2019). Morphological analysis of fungi responsible for spoilage and postharvest loss of Cowpea seeds in Ibadan, Nigeria. Noble International Journal of Agriculture and Food Technology. Vol. 01, No. 01, pp: 29-36,
Favoreto, L., Bueno, R., Calandrelli, A., França, P. P., Meyer, M. C., & Machado, A. C. (2022). Aphelenchoides besseyi parasitizing cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in Brazil. Plant Disease, 106(6), 1555-1557.https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-06-21-1232-SC
Fisher, M. C., Henk, D. A., Briggs, C. J., Brownstein, J. S., Madoff, L. C., Mccraw, S. L., et al. (2012). Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health. Nature 484, 186–194. doi: 10.1038/nature10947
Ganiyu, S. A., Popoola, A. R., Owolade, O. F., & Fatona, K. A. (2017). Control of common bacterial blight disease of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp) with certain plant extracts in Abeokuta, Nigeria. Journal of Crop Improvement, 31(3), 280-288.
Girma, F., Fininsa, C., Terefe, H., & Amsalu, B. (2022). Distribution of common bacterial blight and anthracnose diseases and factors influencing epidemic development in major common bean growing areas in Ethiopia. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B—Soil & Plant Science, 72(1), 685-699. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2022.2063168
Horn, L. N., & Shimelis, H. (2020). Production constraints and breeding approaches for cowpea improvement for drought prone agro-ecologies in Sub-Saharan Africa. Annals of Agricultural Sciences, 65(1), 83-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2020.03.002
Ibrahim, A. A. (2023). Screening of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) Accessions for Resistance to Two Fungi Diseases (Basal Stem Rot and Fusarium Wilt) Using Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) Markers (Doctoral dissertation, Kwara State University (Nigeria)).
Isalar, O. F., & Ogbuji, N. G. (2021). Effect of Some Fungal and Bacterial Organisms on the Growth of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) Seedlings. Journal of Applied Life Sciences International, 24(12), 11-19.
Joshua, B. (2023). Current Knowledge on Biotic Stresses affecting Legumes: Perspectives in Cowpea and Soybean. Advances in Legume Research: Physiological Responses and Genetic Improvement for Stress Resistance, 14.
Joy, N., Chuku, E. C., & Nmom, F. W. (2020). Effect of Fungi Contamination of Two Varieties of Cowpea Sold in Port Harcourt Metropolis. Asian Journal of Research in Botany, 3(2), 9-14.
Kankam, F., Akpatsu, I. B., Tengey, T. K., & Senyabor, F. A. (2023). Incidence and Severity of Cowpea Rust Disease among Selected Cowpea Genotypes in Northern Ghana. Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development, 9(1), 18-24.
Karavina, C., Mandumbu, R., Parwada, C., & Tibugari, H. (2011). A review of the occurrence, biology and management of common bacterial blight. Journal of Agricultural Technology, 7(6), 1459-1474.
Karikari, B., Maale, M. D., Anning, E., Akakpo, D. B., Abujaja, A. M., & Addai, I. K. (2023). Cowpea cropping systems, traits preference and production constraints in the upper west region of Ghana: farmers' consultation and implications for breeding. CABI Agriculture and Bioscience, 4(1), 17.
Kiprop, E. K., Narla, R. D., Mibey, R. K., & Akundabweni, L. M. S. (1987). Etiology of Septoria Leaf Spot of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) In Kenya. Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics, 23.
Kiptui, L. J., Toroitich, F. J., Kilalo, D. C., & Obonyo, M. (2020). Interaction between Cowpea Aphid-Borne mosaic virus isolates and its effect on passion fruit woodiness disease on Passiflora edulis Sims and Passiflora ligularis Juss. Advances in Agriculture, 2020, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8876498
Krishna, K. R., & Nisha, M. S. (2023). Biomanagement of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, and wilt fungus, Fusarium oxysporum, disease complex in vegetable cowpea. Indian Journal of Nematology, 53(1), 8-14. DOI: 10.5958/0974-4444.2023.00002.1
Kumar, A., Rathore, G. S., Kumar, S., Singh, M., Maurya, S., Kumari, P., ... & Lakharan, L. (2022). Golden Mosaic Virus Disease of Cowpea in Rajasthan: Survey, Occurrence and Yield Loss. In Biological Forum–An International Journal (Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 136-142).
Kumar, N. K., Kumar, V. S., Padmaja, A. S., & Chethan, B. S. (2018). Effect of botanicals on Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola and bacterial blight severity in cowpea. 56 (3), 199-204
Kusakabe, A., Molnár, I., & Stock, S. P. (2023). Photorhabdus-derived secondary metabolites reduce root infection by Meloidogyne incognita in cowpea. Plant Disease, 107(11), 3383-3388. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-11-22-2574-SC
Lazaridi, E., & Bebeli, P. J. (2023). Cowpea constraints and breeding in Europe. Plants, 12(6), 1339.
Lira, V. L., Santos, D. V., Barbosa, R. N., Costa, A. F., Maia, L. C., & Moura, R. M. (2020). Biocontrol potential of fungal filtrates on the reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis) in coriander and cowpea. Nematropica, 50(1), 86-95.
Loeto, D., Salani, M., Wale, K., & Khare, K. B. (2016). Seed-borne fungi of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] and their possible control in vitro using locally available fungicides in Botswana.
Mahesha, H. S., Keerthi, M. C., Shivakumar, K. V., Bhargavi, H. A., Saini, R. P., Manjunatha, L., ... & Blair, M. W. (2022). Development of biotic stress resistant cowpea. Genomic Designing for Biotic Stress Resistant Pulse Crops, 213-251. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91043-3_4
Mangeni, B. C., Were, H. K., Ndong'a, M., & Mukoye, B. (2020). Incidence and severity of bean common mosaic disease and resistance of popular bean cultivars to the disease in western Kenya. Journal of Phytopathology, 168(9), 501-515. https://doi.org/10.1111/jph.12928
Marcuzzo, L. L., & Füchter, D. (2021). Influence of temperature and daily leaf wetness duration on the severity of bacterial leaf blight of garlic. Summa Phytopathologica, 47, 180-182. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-5405/214149
Mbeyagala, E., K. Pandey, A., Peter Obuo, J., & Orawu, M. (2022). Challenges, Progress and Prospects for Sustainable Management of Soilborne Diseases of Cowpea. IntechOpen. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.101819
Mengesha, G. G., & Yetayew, H. T. (2018). Distribution and association of factors influencing bean common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli) epidemics in Southern Ethiopia. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 51(19-20), 1066-1089. https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2018.1551043
Mutebi, C. M., & Moranga, V. (2022). Effect of Different Soil Fertilities on Cowpea Mosaic Virus Disease Incidence. International Journal of Horticultural Science and Technology, 9(3), 355-362. DOI: 10.22059/IJHST.2021.331384.507
Nantale, G., Wasswa, P., Edgar, M., Richard, T., Paparu, P., & Dramadri, I. O. (2023). Combining Ability of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp) Genotypes for Resistance to Cowpea Bacterial Blight in Uganda. American Journal of Agricultural Science, Engineering, and Technology, 7(1), 21-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajaset.v7i1.1174
Ndalira, W., Achieng, O. J., & Abenga, B. E. (2020). Evaluation of cowpea rust disease incidence and severity on selected cowpea genotypes in Western Kenya. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 16(7), 1015-1024.
Ndalira, W., Achieng, O. J., & Abenga, B. E. (2020). Evaluation of cowpea rust disease incidence and severity on selected cowpea genotypes in Western Kenya. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 16(7), 1015-1024.
Njonjo, M. W., Muthomi, J. W., & Mwang’ombe, A. W. (2018). RUFORUM Working Document Series (ISSN 1607-9345), No. 17 (1): 533-539. Available from http://repository. ruforum. org.
Nkomo, G. V., Sedibe, M. M., & Mofokeng, M. A. (2021). Production constraints and improvement strategies of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) genotypes for drought tolerance. International Journal of Agronomy, 2021, 1-9.
Noronha, M. D. A., Assunção, M. C., Muniz, M. D. F. S., & Machado, A. C. (2023). Aphelenchoides besseyi causing leaf spot on cowpea under field conditions in Brazil. Australasian Plant Disease Notes, 18(1), 11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13314-023-00496-0
Nsa, I. Y., & Kareem, K. T. (2015). Additive interactions of unrelated viruses in mixed infections of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). Front. Plant Sci. 6:812. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00812
Obisesan, I., & Ojo, P. (2023). Identification and pathogenicity of Nigrospora sphaerica and Curvularia penniseti associated with leaf spot disease of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in Nigeria. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 56(5), 397-409. https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2023.2195035
Ogunsola, K. E., Yusuf, A., & Elegbeku, O. A. (2023). Updates on cowpea viruses in Southwest Nigeria: distribution, prevalence and coinfection. Indian Phytopathology, 76(1), 201-213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42360-022-00576-8
Oguntade, O., Olufolaji, D. B., Oyetayo, V. O., Popoola, A. R., Kazeem, S. A., & Ayodele, M. A. (2021). Morphological and biochemical characterization of strains of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola isolated from cowpea grown in three agro-ecological zones in Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences, 19(2), 1-12.
Omomowo, O. I., & Babalola, O. O. (2021). Constraints and prospects of improving cowpea productivity to ensure food, nutritional security and environmental sustainability. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 751731.
Osdaghi, E., Young, A. J., & Harveson, R. M. (2020). Bacterial wilt of dry beans caused by Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens pv. flaccumfaciens: A new threat from an old enemy. Molecular plant pathology, 21(5), 605-621. https://doi.org/10.1111/mpp.12926
Ouko, J. O., & Buruchara, R. A. (1989). Influence of different cropping systems on incidence and severity of bacterial pustule of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp) caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv vignicola (Burkholder) dye. International Journal of Pest Management, 35(3), 297-300.
Owade, J. O., Abong’, G. O., Okoth, M. W., & Mwang’ombe, A. W. (2020). Trends and constraints in the production and utilization of cowpea leaves in the arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya. Open Agriculture, 5(1), 325-334. https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2020-0038
Pachoute, J., dos Santos, G. R., & de Souza, D. J. (2024). Antagonistic effects of Beauveria bassiana on seed-borne fungi of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Biologia, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11756-024-01615-7
Praneetha, S., Srivastava, J. N., Muthuselvi, R., & Malathi, S. (2022). Important diseases of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and their management. In Diseases of Horticultural Crops: Diagnosis and Management (pp. 131-152). Apple Academic Press.
Ria, K., Devi, G., Bhattacharyya, B., & Saikia, M. (2023). Evaluation of Bio-control Agents for the Management of Reniform Nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis Linford and Oliveira, 1960) on Cowpea. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 13(11), 4424-4436. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i113623
Ribeiro, D. G., Mota, A. P. Z., Santos, I. R., Arraes, F. B. M., Grynberg, P., Fontes, W., ... & Mehta, A. (2022). NBS-LRR-WRKY genes and protease inhibitors (PIs) seem essential for cowpea resistance to root-knot nematode. Journal of Proteomics, 261, 104575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jprot.2022.104575
Saha, S., Romi, I. J., Khatun, F., Saha, B. K., Haque, M. S., & Saha, N. R. (2022). Assessing high-yielding cowpea varieties for bacterial blight resistance in Bangladesh: A step towards an environment-friendly and sustainable solution. Saudi journal of biological sciences, 29(8), 103365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2022.103365
Shi, A., Buckley, B., Mou, B., Motes, D., Morris, J. B., Ma, J., ... & Lu, W. (2016). Association analysis of cowpea bacterial blight resistance in USDA cowpea germplasm. Euphytica, 208, 143-155. doi: 10.1007/s10681-015-1610-1
Simon, S., & Palle, S. S. (2022). Effect of Soil Amendments with Botanical Leaves on Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.). International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, 34(23), 692-698. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/2022/v34i232478
Sindushree, D. R., Patil, P. V., Hegde, Y. R., Deshpande, S. K., & Hosmath, J. A. (2023). Assessment on prevalence and severity of cowpea rust [Uromyces phaseoli var. vignae (Barcl.) Arth.] in Karnataka.
Singh, A., Mamo, T., Singh, A., & Mahama, A. A. (2023). Cowpea breeding. Crop Improvement.
Thakur, D., Pradhan, P., Sahoo, J. P., Subudhi, R. P., Bastia, R., Pradhan, J., & Das, M. P. (2023). Pathogenicity of Root Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and its Effect on Yield of Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp]. Legume Research, 46(10), 1399-1404. DOI: 10.18805/LR-4816
Timilsina, S., Potnis, N., Newberry, E. A., Liyanapathiranage, P., Iruegas-Bocardo, F., White, F. F., ... & Jones, J. B. (2020). Xanthomonas diversity, virulence and plant–pathogen interactions. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 18(8), 415-427.
Wanjiku, G. J., Kingori, G. G., & Kirim, K. J. (2024). Effect of Harvesting Time, Drying Method and Packaging of Cowpea Leaves on Microbial Contamination. Journal of Advances in Microbiology, 24(2), 59-73.
Whitney W. K and Gilmer R. M. (1974). Insect vectors of cowpea mosaic virus in Nigeria. 77(1), 17-21. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744- 7348.1974.tb01383.x
Williams, R. J. (1975). Diseases of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in Nigeria. PANS Pest Articles & News Summaries, 21(3), 253-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/09670877509411407
Yimer, S. M., Ahmed, S., Fininsa, C., Tadesse, N., Hamwieh, A., & Cook, D. R. (2018). Distribution and factors influencing chickpea wilt and root rot epidemics in Ethiopia. Crop Protection, 106, 150-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2017.12.027
Zaki, M. M. M., Afia, A. I. B., Ali Al-Nagar, H. I., & Abdel-ra’ouf, E. O. (2024). Multifarious management of the reniform nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis infecting cowpea. Indian Phytopathology, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42360-023-00703-z
Zhang, S., Meru, G., Palmateer, A. J., Pernezny, K., & Jones, J. B. (2021). Common Bacterial Blight of Snap Bean in Florida: PP-62/PP107, rev 12/2021. EDIS, 2021(6).